The story of the United States Submarine Force, a narrative steeped in technological innovation, strategic adaptation, and profound human sacrifice, officially began 125 years ago.
On October 12, 1900, the U.S. Navy commissioned its first submarine, USS Holland (SS-1). While earlier experimental submersibles like David Bushnell’s Turtle during the American Revolution had demonstrated the concept of underwater warfare the Holland marked the formal establishment of a continuous, commissioned submarine force within the Navy.
From this nascent beginning, the Submarine Force embarked on a remarkable journey, evolving from a coastal defense novelty through the crucible of two World Wars and the long vigil of the Cold War, transforming with the advent of diesel-electric power and later, the revolutionary potential of nuclear propulsion.
Its strategic role shifted dramatically, from tentative fleet scouting to decisive commerce raiding, then to global strategic deterrence and complex multi-mission operations in the modern era.
Throughout this evolution, two themes remain constant: the relentless pursuit of technological advantage and the unwavering service and sacrifice of the personnel who operate these complex machines in the unforgiving depths — the defining characteristics of the “Silent Service.
The acquisition of USS Holland on April 11, 1900, and its commissioning six months later, formally ushered the U.S. Navy into the undersea domain. Designed by the persistent Irish-American inventor John Philip Holland after years of development the Holland was a diminutive vessel, displacing only 64 tons with a length just under 54 feet.
Manned by a small crew of seven and armed with a single 18-inch torpedo tube, its surface speed was a mere 5 knots. Despite these limitations, its primary value lay in experimentation and training. Stationed primarily at Annapolis, it was instrumental in training Naval Academy cadets and the first generation of officers and enlisted men destined for the growing submarine fleet. Its operations, including a 166-mile surface run to Norfolk in 1901, provided crucial data for the design and construction of subsequent submarines.
Early submarine development faced significant technological hurdles, particularly in propulsion. The gasoline engines used initially, including on the Holland, were notoriously unreliable and dangerous in the confined, poorly ventilated environment of a submarine. Early lead-acid batteries for submerged electric propulsion were heavy, inefficient, and prone to releasing explosive hydrogen gas.
A major step forward came with the adoption of Rudolf Diesel’s engine design after 1909, offering a safer, more stable fuel and greater efficiency, which extended surface range and operational safety. The competitive environment also spurred innovation. John Holland’s success in securing the first Navy contract was challenged by rivals like Simon Lake.
Lake, though initially less successful in gaining Navy favor and selling early designs like the Protector abroad (notably to Russia), contributed key advancements such as even-keel hydroplanes for depth control without changing ballast, diving lock-out chambers, and early periscope development.
This rivalry, born from differing design philosophies and financial pressures, accelerated the pace of technological exploration in the force’s formative years. Despite these advancements, U.S. submarines played a limited role in World War I. While Germany demonstrated the devastating potential of U-boats, the U.S. Navy, entering the war in 1917 with only about 30 operational submarines, primarily employed its boats in coastal defense, anti-U-boat patrols off the East Coast and in European waters like the Azores, and protecting Allied convoys. Classes like the K-class operated off the Azores, while E-class boats patrolled against U-boats near the U.S. coast.
The war, however, highlighted a critical need beyond combat experience. The increasing complexity of submarine technology made traditional on-the-job training insufficient. Recognizing this, the Navy established the U.S. Navy Submarine School at the Submarine Base in New London, Connecticut, on January 19, 1917. This marked a pivotal moment, institutionalizing the specialized knowledge required for undersea warfare and laying the foundation for the professional culture that defines the U.S. Submarine Force.
The interwar years saw continued development, but it was World War II that cemented the U.S. Submarine Force’s indispensable role. Pre-war doctrine emphasizing submarines as scouts for the battle fleet was instantly rendered obsolete by the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Within hours of the attack, on December 7, 1941, the Chief of Naval Operations ordered the execution of unrestricted air and submarine warfare against Japan. This directive, likely a pre-planned contingency rather than solely an act of reprisal, marked a significant departure from previous U.S. adherence to international prize rules (“cruiser rules”) that governed attacks on merchant shipping.
This strategic decision unleashed the Submarine Force, which, in the devastating early months of the war, represented the only element of the U.S. Pacific Fleet capable of taking the fight directly to the enemy.
Operating primarily in the vast Pacific theater, American submarines waged a relentless and devastatingly effective campaign against Japanese maritime power. Comprising less than two percent of the U.S. Navy, the Submarine Force accounted for approximately 55% of all
Japanese merchant shipping sunk and nearly 30% of the Imperial Japanese Navy’s warships sent to the bottom. Post-war assessments credited U.S. submarines with sinking over 1,100 merchant ships totaling nearly five million gross tons, and over 200 warships.
This strategic interdiction crippled Japan’s island empire, severing supply lines for vital resources like oil and raw materials, and ultimately strangling its war economy.
Legendary boats like USS Tang (credited with the most tonnage sunk at 116,454 tons and the most ships sunk at 33), USS Flasher (second highest tonnage), and USS Tautog (second highest ship count), along with daring commanders such as Dudley “Mush” Morton of USS Wahoo and Richard O’Kane, Morton’s executive officer on Wahoo and later commander of Tang, became symbols of the force’s success.
This success was built upon capable platforms like the Gato-class 45 and the subsequent, improved Balao-class submarines. These fleet boats possessed the necessary range, endurance (up to 75 days on patrol), and armament (typically 10 torpedo tubes, 24 torpedoes, and deck guns) to operate effectively across the Pacific.
Key improvements in the Balao class included the use of stronger steel, increasing the test depth from 300 feet to 400 feet providing a crucial tactical advantage when evading attack. However, this technological edge did not guarantee smooth sailing. Early war efforts were significantly hampered by severe problems with the Mark 14 torpedo, which suffered from faulty depth control, unreliable magnetic influence detonators, and defective contact exploders, often failing to detonate even on direct hits.
Overcoming these critical ordnance failures, finally resolved in late 1943, required extraordinary persistence and adaptation from submarine crews, making their eventual dominance even more remarkable.
Victory came at a steep price. The Submarine Force suffered the highest casualty rate of any U.S. service branch during the war, losing 52 boats in action.
Approximately 375 officers and 3,131 enlisted men, roughly one in five submariners who serve, were lost, forever enshrined on the “Eternal Patrol.”
Their sacrifice underscored the perilous nature of undersea warfare even amidst overwhelming strategic success.
The post-war era witnessed a transformation arguably more profound than any before it: the harnessing of nuclear power. The commissioning of USS Nautilus (SSN-571) on September 30, 1954, marked the dawn of this new age. Propelled by a pressurized water reactor developed under the demanding leadership of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, Nautilus shattered the operational limitations of its diesel-electric predecessors. Its famous message, “Underway on nuclear power,” signaled an era where submarines could remain submerged for weeks or months, travel at high sustained speeds underwater, and operate independently of the surface. On its initial fuel load, Nautilus traveled over 70,000 miles, mostly submerged. Its performance in exercises quickly demonstrated that existing anti-submarine warfare (ASW) tactics, reliant on detecting surfaced or snorkeling submarines, were largely obsolete against a true submersible. Its historic submerged transit under the North Pole in 1958 further showcased its capabilities and opened up previously inaccessible Arctic waters for naval operations.
This technological leap enabled two distinct but equally vital Cold War roles. The first was strategic deterrence. Recognizing the vulnerability of land-based bombers and missiles, the Navy rapidly developed submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).
Under the direction of Rear Admiral William Raborn, the Navy developed the solid-fueled Polaris missile and concurrently designed the first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) to carry them. USS George Washington (SSBN-598), commissioned in 1959, became the first of the legendary “41 for Freedom” SSBNs. These boats, operating silently and unseen on continuous deterrent patrols, carried successively improved versions of the Polaris and later the multiple-warhead Poseidon missiles.
This provided the United States with its most survivable nuclear deterrent, a guaranteed second-strike capability that became a cornerstone of Cold War stability.
Simultaneously, nuclear power enabled the modern nuclear attack submarine (SSN). Freed from the constraints of battery life, SSNs became true undersea predators, capable of hunting Soviet submarines, particularly their SSBNs, across the globe.
The Cold War’s technological race and operational intensity were not without cost, even in peacetime. Two tragic losses in the 1960s underscored the inherent dangers of submarine operations and led to fundamental changes in safety culture.
On April 10, 1963, USS Thresher (SSN-593), the lead boat of a new class of advanced attack submarines, was lost with all 129 personnel (crew and civilian technicians) aboard during deep-diving tests east of Cape Cod. The formal Court of Inquiry concluded the most probable cause was a failure in a seawater piping system joint, likely a silver-brazed joint which subsequent investigation revealed could be faulty despite passing initial tests. This failure likely caused major flooding in the engine room, leading to a reactor shutdown. Attempts to surface using the emergency main ballast blow system were likely thwarted when moisture in the high-pressure air caused ice to form on strainers in the system, blocking airflow. Unable to stop its descent, Thresher exceeded its collapse depth and imploded.
Five years later, on May 22, 1968, USS Scorpion (SSN-589), a Skipjack-class attack submarine, was lost with all 99 crew members while returning to Norfolk from a deployment in the Atlantic. Unlike Thresher, the exact cause of Scorpion’s loss remains undetermined, despite
extensive investigation of acoustic data and the wreckage found at a depth of 10,000 feet. Several theories persist. The lack of conclusive evidence continues to fuel speculation and underscores the immense challenges of deep-sea disaster investigation.
The loss of Thresher, the first nuclear submarine disaster, was a profound shock to the Navy and the nation. It led directly to the establishment of the Submarine Safety (SUBSAFE) program. SUBSAFE implemented an unprecedented rigorous system of design reviews, material controls, welding and testing procedures and quality assurance certifications for all components and systems exposed to sea pressure or vital for recovering from flooding.
This demanding, system-wide approach institutionalized a culture of safety that has proven remarkably successful: no SUBSAFE-certified submarine has ever been lost. The program’s success has even served as a model for other high-reliability organizations, including NASA following the Columbia space shuttle disaster.
The collapse of the Soviet Union fundamentally altered the strategic landscape, prompting another significant evolution for the U.S. Submarine Force. The primary focus shifted from open-ocean Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) against a peer competitor towards multi-mission capabilities tailored for regional conflicts and littoral (near-shore) operations.
While traditional ASW remains a core competency, the post-Cold War era has seen increased emphasis on Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR), adapting Cold War skills to gather tactical intelligence on regional threats.
Support for Special Operations Forces (SOF) became a more prominent role, with newer submarines designed with features like reconfigurable torpedo rooms and large lock-out chambers to deploy and recover SEAL teams and their equipment.
The integration of the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM), first used in combat by submarines during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, transformed attack submarines into stealthy precision strike platforms, capable of projecting power ashore from unseen positions.
Submarines also became key nodes in network-centric warfare, leveraging their stealth to gather and relay critical information. This mission shift influenced submarine design. The Seawolf class (SSN-21), conceived at the height of the Cold War to be the quietest, fastest, and most heavily armed attack submarine capable of dominating Soviet counterparts, proved exceptionally capable but also extraordinarily expensive around $3-3.5 billion per boat.
With the Cold War’s end, the planned fleet of 29 was drastically cut to just three: USS Seawolf (SSN-21), USS Connecticut (SSN-22), and USS Jimmy Carter (SSN-23), the last being lengthened and modified with a Multi-Mission Platform (MMP) for enhanced SOF and undersea payload capabilities.
The need for a more affordable, adaptable platform designed explicitly for the new era led to the Virginia class (SSN-774). Entering service in 2004, the Virginia class incorporates fly-by-wire controls for improved littoral maneuvering, enhanced SOF support features, photonics masts instead of traditional periscopes (allowing the control room to be moved to a more spacious location), and a modular design facilitating upgrades. The Virginia class represents the current workhorse of the attack submarine force, with production continuing.
Looking ahead, the Submarine Force is focused on recapitalizing its strategic deterrent with the Columbia class ballistic missile submarines. Designated the Navy’s top priority program, Columbia-class boats are planned to replace the aging Ohio-class SSBNs beginning in the
early 2030s. These large submarines will feature a life-of-the-ship reactor (eliminating the need for mid-life refueling) and a quiet electric-drive propulsion system.
Despite the immense cost, estimated at over $100 billion for the class, and significant industrial base challenges involved in building both Columbia and Virginia classes concurrently, the program underscores the enduring importance of the sea-based nuclear deterrent.
Future capabilities across the force will increasingly involve the integration of Unmanned Underwater Vehicles for missions ranging from intelligence collection and mine countermeasures to ASW and potentially strike.
Furthermore, strategic partnerships like AUKUS, involving the sale of Virginia-class submarines to Australia and the joint development of a future SSN-AUKUS class, highlight the continued global strategic value placed on advanced submarine capabilities in the face of evolving geopolitical challenges.
The force’s history demonstrates a remarkable capacity to adapt its platforms and missions to meet the demands of changing eras, a trait essential for navigating the complexities of the 21st century.
The moniker “Silent Service” aptly captures the essence of the U.S. Submarine Force. While popularly associated with the necessary secrecy surrounding submarine operations during World War II, the term may also reflect an older, broader institutional tendency within the
Navy towards less public engagement compared to other branches.
Regardless of its precise origin, the name powerfully evokes the inherent stealth of submarine operations and the culture of operational security that pervades the force. Life aboard a submarine entails operating in a unique and demanding environment, characterized by prolonged periods submerged, isolation from the outside world, cramped quarters, artificial light, and the constant potential for danger, whether from accident or adversary action.
This unforgiving environment demands exceptional psychological resilience and physical fitness from its crews.
Consequently, the Submarine Force cultivates a distinct culture centered on extreme professionalism. Entry into the force is voluntary, and personnel undergo rigorous and highly specialized training at institutions like the Naval Submarine School, New London in Groton Connecticut, to master the complex technologies and demanding procedures required for safe and effective operation.
The confined space and high stakes necessitate extraordinary teamwork, discipline, and mutual reliance among crew members, fostering a strong esprit de corps.
This professionalism is not merely a matter of pride; it is a fundamental requirement for survival and mission success when operating complex systems like nuclear reactors and advanced weapons systems under immense pressure, both literal and figurative.
While the force has evolved, integrating new technologies and, more recently, women into submarine crews, the core values of honor, courage, commitment, and the quiet competence implied by the “Silent Service” name remain constant. The demanding nature of the technology and the perilous undersea environment have forged a symbiotic relationship with the culture required to operate within it – a culture of silent, steadfast professionalism.
Over the past 125 years, the United States Submarine Force has traced an extraordinary arc, from the modest experimental vessel USS Holland to the sophisticated nuclear-powered fleets patrolling the world’s oceans today. Its history is marked by distinct eras of technological transformation—the transition from hazardous gasoline engines to reliable diesel-electric systems, the revolutionary leap to nuclear propulsion with Nautilus, and the ongoing integration of digital systems, advanced missiles, and unmanned vehicles.
Each technological advance reshaped not only the submarine itself but also its strategic purpose, evolving from coastal defense and fleet support in the early years, to the decisive anti-shipping campaign of World War II, the critical strategic deterrence and clandestine intelligence roles of the Cold War, and the versatile multi-mission capabilities demanded in the post-Cold War world.
Throughout this journey, a constant interplay has existed between technological innovation, strategic necessity, and the indispensable human element. New technologies created new capabilities, enabling the force to adapt to shifting national security requirements. Yet,
operating these increasingly complex machines in the inherently hostile undersea environment has always demanded exceptional skill, unwavering dedication, and profound sacrifice from its personnel.
The staggering losses of World War II and the peacetime tragedies of Thresher and Scorpion serve as stark reminders of the risks involved.
The legacy of the U.S. Submarine Force is thus one of quiet strength, technological prowess, and strategic relevance, secured by the professionalism and courage of the submariners who serve, and have served, beneath the waves—forever honoring the memory of those on
“Eternal Patrol.”
As it moves into its next quarter-century, the Silent Service remains a vital, adaptable, and indispensable component of American sea power.
